Conclusion

After Constantine the Great confirmed Galerius’ Edict of Milan in 311, an increase in church building activity took place in the Roman Empire, including the area of the present Republic of Macedonia, as outlined in Chapter VI. The Slavic invasions brought this activity to temporary standstill, only for it to revive again between the years 900 and 1000 and thereafter.

During the period of about four hundred years between the oldest surviving large cathedral church, the Sveti Sophia at Ohrid, from about 1040, and the fall of Constantinople in 1453, interesting developments took place both in art and in the political situation. Ohrid became in the eleventh century the religious centre of the northern part of the Balkan Peninsula, a position that it would maintain for a long period. It was also the centre of Slavic literature, from the time of the Slavic apostles Clemens and Naum.

In the course of the centuries under different rulers, Macedonia remained in one way or another within the Byzantine sphere of influence, despite the fact that some conquered parts of the empire. Thus Samuil conquered large areas from Byzantium only to be defeated by Basil II. During another period of weakness of the Byzantine Empire Stefan Nemanja and his successors succeeded in consolidating the Nemanjiden dynasty, which lasted until 1389, when as a result of the total victory of the Turks at the Battle of Kosovo. Macedonia fell completely under the power of the Turks, a colonisation which lasted until 1912.

During this period of about four hundred years we see an interesting development in art. The eleventh century wall paintings in the Sveti Sophia at Ohrid still breathe the spirit of the past with standing figures gazing motionless, although a tendency to a more vivid style can be seen in some preserved fragments of this church, such as the Christ-child on the lap of his mother with bare legs.

About one hundred and twenty years later a new style of painting, the Comnenen style or Macedonian Renaissance, was uses in the wall paintings in the Church Sveti Panteleimon at Nerezi. This style found its ultimate expression in the murals in the Church Sveti Djordje at Kurbinovo, which show strong manneristic tendencies, especially in the drapery of the angels in the half cupola of the apse.

From the beginning of the thirteenth century the Crusaders occupied large parts of the Byzantine Empire and its capital Constantinople for about sixty years. Nevertheless on the fringes of the Empire, artistic development continued. In Serbia especially a new style emerged, the Paleologen-style, named after Michael Paleologos, who re-captured Constantinople in 1261 from Latin domination. It is generally accepted that the first church painted in this style is the Church of the Holy Trinity at Sopoćani, located near the source of the River Raška in the region of Ras, which was at that time the centre of the Serbian medieval state. This style of painting was soon widespread over large areas of the Empire and in countries where the Orthodox faith was alive.

The paintings in the Church Sveti Sophia at Ohrid were made under strong influence of Archbishop Leo I who came originally from Constantinople. At that time there was a dispute with the Roman Catholic Church about the use of leavened or unleavened bread in the Eucharist and it may be assumed that Leo I himself gave instructions to have Christ painted at the Communion of the Apostles with leavened bread. Most of the paintings in the sanctuary of this church depict Old Testament scenes which have a Eucharistic significance, e.g. the Sacrifice of Abraham and the Hospitality of Abraham or, the Philoxenia which is symbolically related to the Last Supper.

A surprisingly large number of patriarchs, bishops, theological writers and other dignitaries have been portrayed, indicating that the archbishop of Ohrid, Leo I, probably had regular direct contact with ecclesiastical authorities in Constantinople and through them perhaps indirectly with Rome. Patriarchs from Constantinople, Antioch, Alexandria and Jerusalem, bishops from Asia Minor and archbishops from Cyprus are shown on the wall in the naos. With his own Paphlagonian origin in mind he had the bishops from Asia Minor also painted in prominent places. At least six popes of the Roman Catholic Church have also been depicted. This is surprising since popes were rarely honoured in Eastern churches. Other paintings in the naos confirm the influence of Leo I, for example, the Liturgy by Basil the Great, the Vision of Johannes the Evangelist, the Dream of Jacob with the Heavenly-ladder and the Three Hebrews in the burning furnace, all of which have a eucharistic meaning or refer directly to the most important acts of the Christian liturgy. The wall painting of the Forty-Martyrs of Sebaste, painted in the prothesis, was a well-loved theme in Constantinople and is one of the oldest and most impressive depictions that has survived. One of the largest and most impressive wall paintings is undoubtedly the Ascension of Christ on the hemispherical vault of the sanctuary. A majestic Christ sits on a heavenly arch and makes a gesture of blessing with his right hand. On each side the apostles stand in paradise-like surroundings with palm trees. They stare upwards, their arms are raised in astonishment, at the King of Glory ascending in the light of his mandorla. Their facial expressions are individual. Also remarkable is the presence of David in this scene.

The paintings in the large narthex are later and date from the second half of the fourteenth century. The wall paintings here do not have the brilliance of those in the church. Moreover, most of them have suffered in the course of time. Some are remarkable for their rare depiction, such as the Seven Sleepers of Ephesus, David’s Repentance and the depiction of the Councils. Unique is in fact the large number of unfortunately unnamed female saints in the narthex.

The development of the Comnenen-style of painting in the Church of Sveti Panteleimon at Nerezi, is shown particularly in the expression of deep emotion on the human faces, for example, on the face of Maria in the Lamentation of Christ. In one of the most dramatic scenes in Byzantine art a mother weeps over the death of her beloved son, her face showing the deep human anguish at her loss. Further examples are the faces of Simeon and Joseph in the scene of the Presentation of Christ at the temple, in which the personal expression of both men demonstrates the skilfulness of the painter(s).

A remarkable painting in this church is the meeting and embracement of Peter and Paul, a scene which appears for the first time at Nerezi. It was probably painted for political reasons, because of the ambitions of Emperor Manuel I to become the new Roman Emperor, and to assume power over both Byzantium and Latin West. The scene later became popular as proof of a historical meeting in Rome, which in fact never took place, and as a confirmation of Rome’s ideas of supremacy in church matters.

The Comnenen-style of painting within the borders of the Republic of Macedonia reached its summit in the Church Sveti Djordje at Kurbinovo. The paintings on the eastern wall attract special attention because of the way the skilful painters have expressed a liveliness in the drapery, in particular with the angel of the Annunciation with meandering folds over a elongated, slender figure. The clothing of the figures has taken on a life of its own. It may be assumed that the main painter of the wall paintings at Kurbinovo was well aware of contemporary painting techniques at that time. Whereas the Nerezi frescoes are predominantly graceful and express humanity and sometimes emotions, the Kurbinovo wall paintings are characterised by vivid expressions and movement, by a particular articulation of the human body, with an expressive linearity in the hair, in movement and meandering in the clothing of the figures exposed, the characterised faces are solid with strong lips and noses and clearly indicated cheekbones.

The church at Kurbinovo contains some remarkable wall paintings, including the first dated example of depiction of Christ lying in a paten to represent the consecrated bread.

A remarkable detail can be seen in the Ascension of Christ. Within Christ’s mandorla strange creatures surround Him: fishes and snakelike animals and on the left an animal with the shape of a lion, all side by side with strange forms and waves. It is a unique depiction of which as far as is known no other example exists and for which no reasonable explanation can be given.

Another example is the Meeting of Maria and Elisabeth, called the Visitation. Earlier representations of the Visitation are rare, and the fact that they have been rendered twice in this wall painting is unusual. The women have been painted in the act of running towards each other.

The painting of the south wall showing Anna, the mother of Maria, suckling her new-born baby, is a rare depiction in Byzantine art. The painter has depicted her in old age, with sharp lines in her face.

About one hundred years later a large part of Macedonia came under the influence of the Nemanjiden, especially during the reign of King Milutin, a man known for his building activities. The Paleologen-style of painting found followers all over the Byzantine Empire and other orthodox areas. At the time of Milutin two painters, usually known as Mihail and Eutychius, attracted attention, their names are sometimes hidden on the wall paintings they made. They gave their own personal interpretation to the Paleologen-style of painting. Their compositions have been shaped magisterially; there is certainty in their drawing and freshness in the colouring. They succeeded in painting fine expression in the faces and athletic bodies with strong necks. The bodies are linear, but in some instances spectacularly voluminous. They had a predilection for extensive narrative scenes with a large number of people. They created paintings with great attention to small realistic details, graceful and new. It may be assumed that the skilful painters had a good knowledge of the trends in painting in the Byzantine world. It is not improbable that they had a frequent contact with the learned ecclesiastical circles. Not only did they create new and sometimes surprisingly cycles relating to Christological scenes, but most remarkable are scenes relating to the Old Testament prefigurations of the incarnation of Christ. Their work can be found in the Sveti Kliment at Ohrid, formerly called the Bogorodica Periblebtos, in the katholikon of the monastery Sveti Nikita at Banjani and in the Church Sveti Djordje at Staro Nagoričane. Their work is also known in some churches in Serbia.

Even in a conclusion it is difficult to make a choice from all the new and sometimes remarkable wall paintings both painters have made. When entering the church at Ohrid the standing figure of Maria in the apse immediately attracts attention. She is the Mother of God Blachernitissa surrounded by Christ’s ancestors. Although now hidden one of the most remarkable wall paintings in the church of Ohrid is the depiction of Peter carrying the church on his shoulder, while trampling the devil under his feet, a depiction made for the first time in this church. Also interesting is the cycle of the youth of Maria together with her parents, her presence in the temple and the discovery by Joseph of her pregnancy and the drinking of the bitter water after the Annunciation. In all three churches the painters paid much attention to the Passion of Christ. Two of the most beautiful wall paintings in the Sveti Kliment at Ohrid are the Prayer at Gethsemane, where the painters used foreshortening in depicting the disciples, long before it was introduced in Italy, and the wall painting depicting the Lamentation of Christ, which contains dramatic gestures by the people involved. Innovative too are the depictions of Christ climbing the ladder standing against the cross to be crucified in both the churches at Ohrid and Staro Nagoričane, and where he is pulled up by his arms in the church at Banjani. In Staro Nagoričane we see Christ and the two malefactors Dysmas and Gestas hanging on the cross, a somewhat unusual depiction for that time.

The Koimesis depictions both in Sveti Kliment at Ohrid and in Sveti Djordje at Staro Nagoričane are remarkable for the additions the painters have made, for example, in the first the Annunciation to the Virgin by Archangel Gabriel of her passing away. Moreover, on the other side the Virgin is shown on her way to heaven meeting Thomas, who was late, and handing over to him her girdle as a proof of their meeting. The belief in the assumption of the body of the Virgin into heaven after her death and funeral, as affirmed in the hymns sung in the Orthodox Church on the Feast of the Dormation, arose probably under western influence. Unlike the Roman Church, however, the Orthodox Church never proclaimed it as a dogma.^[1] In the Koimesis scene in Sveti Djordje the painters have remarkably added eight prophets, each with an unrolled scroll in their hands containing texts about the pre-figurations of the Virgin, together with a symbol. They glorify the Virgin as the Theotokos, the Mother of God, honour the Immaculate Conception and the Incarnation of Christ, which are emphasised by the representation of the death of the Virgin.

In the narthex of Sveti Kliment intelligent difficult understandable Old Testament pre-figurations have been painted relating to the Virgin as the Fountain of Life, among others Moses before the Burning Bush, the dream of Nebuchadnezzar and Wisdom building itself a temple. Together with a number of saints and angels these wall paintings belong to the best works the painters produced in this church.

In Sveti Nikita they have depicted a winged John the Baptist holding his decapitated head in his hand, a scene first painted only a few years earlier in Serbia.

Mihail and Eutychios also left an interesting cycle of paintings in the Church Sveti Djordje relating to the life and sufferings of the patron saintof the church, a number of which are completely new and painted for the first time in this church.

Only three years after the paintings of the Sveti Kliment an unknown provincial painter made the decorations in the small church Sveti Nikola in Varoš. Here in the depiction of the Koimesis there is a small detail which is most surprisingly and hardly to be noticed, as far as I know unique in the world of Byzantine wall paintings. The soul of Maria is shown leaving her mouth in the form of a Psyche, which is flying to the outstretched arms of Christ. The painter may have seen an example elsewhere; it is probably lost because I am not aware of any earlier example. There are later representations which can be seen in a very small number of other churches.

Another interesting development about fifty years later, can be seen in the church of the Archangel Michael at Lesnovo. In the apse Christ has been depicted as a celebrating bishop. On the walls the painters have depicted a cycle of relatively unknown miracles by the Archangel Michael, including his saving of Constantinople from the Saracens.

Here the narthex also contains wall paintings hardly seen before. On the pendentives bearing the cupola four Fathers of the Church have been shown in the act of writing. The head of each of them is touched by a small angel to give them divine inspiration. Wisdom flows from their desks as a stream of water and people are shown filling their jars to drink from the water of Wisdom.

In the same narthex other remarkable paintings can be seen, particularly the depiction of Psalms, on the east wall, the triumphal song of Israel with the words of Psalm 149. King David plays the harp while a group of people dance around. Opposite this joyful scene another part of the same Psalm expressing the wrath of God with those in whom He takes no pleasure, is illustrated with soldiers engaged in a heavy combat.

On the barrel-vault a unique wall painting depicts words from Psalm 148: “Praise the Lord from the heavens, all his angels, all his hosts, praise him sun and moon, all stars of light. Praise the Lord from the earth, you dragons and all deeps, beast and all cattle, creeping things and flying fowl, his glory is above earth and heaven.” The painter(s) have used their fantasy to create the strangest creatures, including the twelve signs of the Zodiac.

The Demetrius Church, which was built about thirty years later 1380, contains at least one depiction not known elsewhere, the wall painting of Rachel weeping for her dead children, which forms part of the Massacre of the Innocents. Above this scene the painters have depicted in a separate wall painting how Elisabeth with the little John disappears inside a mountain. The narthex of this church contains an extensive cycle of scenes from the life of St. Nicholas.

Most remarkable, although not unique, is the Akathistos-cycle, one of the best preserved complete cycles in Byzantine art, which shows in twenty-four separate wall paintings all the verses of the Akathistos. Especially in the last twelve wall paintings the painters have succeeded in treating the words of the poem in an original manner.

The examples given above from the churches in the Republic of Macedonia demonstrate the interesting developments which took place in the Byzantine art of wall paintings within a relatively short period of about two hundred and fifty years. New styles of painting emerged and known and unknown painters succeeded in expressing their views in a sometimes surprising way by creating new and imaginative scenes.

A few examples can be found in handbooks about Byzantine art, but the greater part is unknown – at least in the western world. They deserve greater attention. Much that so far has remained hidden, or was only known to a very restricted number of scholars, is now revealed in this work.

1. Ware, p. 264 ↑